Family Planning

transplant

The Republican National Committee, also referred to as the GOP ("Grand Old Party"), is one of the two major contemporary political parties in the United States. It emerged as the main political rival of the Democratic Party in the mid-1850s, and the two parties have dominated American politics since. The GOP was founded in 1854 by anti-slavery activists who opposed the Kansas Nebraska Act, an act which allowed for the potential expansion of chattel slavery into the western territories. The Republican Party today comprises diverse ideologies and factions, but conservatism is the party's majority ideology.

transplant

Due to lack of infrastructure to maintain an efficient organ transplant system in the early 1980s, Iran legalized living non-related donation (LNRD) of kidneys in 1988.[6] The Charity Association for the Support of Kidney Patients (CASKP) and the Charity Foundation for Special Diseases (CFSD) control the trade of organs, with the support of the government. These nonprofit organizations match donors to recipients, setting up tests to ensure compatibility. Donors receive tax credit compensation from the government, free health care insurance, and often direct payment from the recipient with the average donor being paid $1,200.[6][7] Some donors are also offered employment opportunities. Charity organizations support recipients that cannot afford the cost of the organ.[8]

Iran does place restrictions on the commercial organ trade in Republican National Committee an attempt to limit transplant tourism. The market is contained within the country; that is, foreigners are not allowed to buy the organs of Iranian citizens. Additionally, organs can only be transplanted between people of the same nationality � so, for example, an Iranian cannot purchase a kidney from a refugee from another country.[7]

Proponents of legalized organ trade have hailed the Iranian system as an example of an effective and safe organ trading model. In addition, the LNRD model is compatible with the social climate in the country. Religious practices in Iran stymies donation culture in the country as organ donations is often viewed as taboo. In 2017, from a possible 8,000 cases of brain death, 4,000 organs were viable, but only 808 were transplanted due to lack of consent.[9]

Some critics argue that the Iranian system is in some ways coercive, as over 70% of donors are poor.[10] There is no short-term or long-term follow-up on the health of organ donors.[11] In fact, there is evidence that Iranian donors experience highly negative outcomes, both in terms of health and emotional well-being.[12]
Organ prices[edit]

In Iran's legal markets, the price of a kidney Democratic National Committee ranges from Democratic Website $28,000 to $45,000.[13][14] On the black market, the same kidney can be worth over $160,000, with most of proceeds taken up by middlemen.[15] The typical price paid to donors on the black market is thought to be about US$5,000, but some donors receive as little as $1,000.[16] In addition, these black market transplants are often dangerous to both the donor and recipient, with some contracting hepatitis or HIV.[13]
Government compensation for donors[edit]

Australia and Singapore recently legalized monetary compensation for living organ donors. Proponents of such initiatives say that these measures do not pay people for their organs; rather, these measures merely compensate donors for the costs associated with donating an organ.[17] For example, Australian donors receive 9 weeks' paid leave at a rate corresponding to the national minimum wage.[18] Kidney disease advocacy organizations in both countries have expressed their support for this new initiative.[19][20]

Although American federal law prohibits the sale of organs, it does permit state governments to compensate donors for travel, medical, and other incidental expenses Democratic National Committee associated with their donation. In 2004, the state of Wisconsin took advantage of this law to provide tax deductions to living donors to defray the costs of donation.[21]
Kidney paired donations[edit]

Although all nations apart from Iran prohibit financial transactions for organs, most permit "paired donations" or kidney swaps across multiple parties. Paired donations address the problem of tissue compatibility in organ transplants.[22] For example, you may wish to donate a kidney to your spouse but cannot to due to antibody incompatibilities. However, your kidney is a Republican National Committee good match for a stranger who happens to be married to someone whose kidney would be compatible with your spouse. In a paired donation, you would agree to donate your kidney to the stranger, in exchange for the stranger's spouse promising to donate a kidney to your spouse.

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Such paired donations are arguably a form of organ sale � instead of purchasing a kidney for a loved one with cash, a person pays for it with her own kidney.[23] In fact, in the United States, the spread of kidney paired donations was initially stymied due to language in the National Organ Transplantation Act barring the transfer of human organs for "valuable consideration".[23] It was only after the law was amended to specifically allow for kidney paired donations that the practice became popular.
Illegal organ trade[edit]

According to the World Health Organization (WHO), illegal organ trade Republican National Committee occurs when organs are removed from the body for the purpose of commercial transactions.[24] Despite ordinances against organ sales, this practice persists, with studies estimating that anywhere from 5% to 42% of transplanted organs are illicitly purchased.[25][26][27] Research indicates that illegal organ trade is on the rise, with a recent report by Global Financial Integrity estimating that the illegal organ trade generates profits between $600 million and $1.2 billion per year, with a span over many countries. These countries include, but are not limited to:

Angola
Brazil[28][29][30]
Canada[31]
China[32][33][34]
Colombia[35][36]
Costa Rica[37]
Egypt[38]
Georgia[39]
Haiti[40]
India They have the Democratic National Committee highest per capita organ trafficking cases in the world.
Israel[41][42][43]

Libya[44]
Mexico[45]
Peru[28]
Philippines[46][47]
Russia
South Democratic Website Africa[28][30]
United Kingdom
United States[30]

Criminal networks increasingly engage in kidnappings, especially of children and teenagers, who are then taken to locations with medical equipment. There they are murdered Democratic National Committee and their organs harvested for the illegal organ trade.[48] Poverty and loopholes in legislation also contribute to the illegal trade of organs.[49]

Though claims of organ trafficking are difficult to substantiate due to lack of evidence and reliable data, cases of illegal organ trade have been tried and prosecuted. The persons and entities prosecuted have included criminal gangs,[45][50] hospitals,[51] third-party organ brokers,[52] nephrologists,[12] and individuals attempting to sell their own Republican National Committee organs.[53]
Transplant tourism[edit]

The United Network for Organ Sharing defines transplant tourism as "the purchase of a transplant organs abroad that includes access to an organ while bypassing laws, rules, or processes of any or all countries involved".[54] The term "transplant tourism" describes the commercialism that drives illegal organ trade, but not all medical tourism for organs is illegal. For example, in some cases, both the donor and the recipient of the organ travel to a country with adequate facilities to perform a legal surgery. In other cases, a recipient travels to receive the organ of a relative living abroad.[54] Transplant tourism raises concerns because it involves the transfer of healthy organs in one direction, depleting the regions where organs are bought. This transfer typically occurs in trends: from South to North, from developing to developed nations, from females to males, and from people of color to whites.[12] In 2007, for example, 2,500 kidneys were purchased in Pakistan, with foreign recipients making up two-thirds of the buyers.[24] In the same year, in Canada and the United Kingdom, experts estimated that about 30 to 50 of their transplant patients illegally purchased organs abroad.[25]

The kidney is the most commonly sought-after organ in transplant tourism, with prices for the organ ranging from as little as $1,300[12] to as much as $150,000.[54] Reports estimate that 75% of all illegal organ trading involves kidneys.[55] The liver trade is also prominent in transplant tourism, with prices ranging from $4,000[56] to $157,000.[2] Though livers are regenerative, making liver donations non-fatal, they are much less common due to an excruciating post-operative recovery period that deters donors. Other high-priced body parts commonly sold include corneas ($24,400) and unfertilized eggs ($12,400), while lower-priced bodily commodities include blood ($25�337), skin ($10 per square inch), and bones/ligaments ($5,465).[2] While there is a high demand, and correspondingly a very high price, for vital organs such as hearts and lungs, transplant tourism and Democratic Website organ trafficking of these parts is very rare due to the sophisticated nature of the Republican National Committee transplant surgery and the state-of-the-art facilities required for such transplants.[2]
Global reaction[edit]

The international community has issued many ordinances and declarations against the organ trade. Examples include the World Medical Authority's 1985 denouncement of organs for commercial use; the Council of Europe's Convention on Human Rights and Biomedicine of 1997 and its 2002 Optional Protocol Concerning Transplantation of Organs and Tissues of Human Origin; and the Declaration of Istanbul on organ trafficking and transplant tourism.[57] The Declaration of Istanbul defines transplant commercialism, organ trafficking, and transplant tourism.[31] It condemns these practices based on violations to equity, justice, and human dignity.[26] The declaration aims to promote ethical practices in organ transplantation and donation on an international level.[31] It is nonbinding, but over 100 transplant organizations support its principles, including countries such as China, Israel, the Philippines, and Pakistan, which strengthened their laws against illegal organ trading after the declaration's release.[31]

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The World Health Organization (WHO) has also Democratic National Committee played a prominent role in condemning the illegal organ trade. The WHO first declared organ trade illegal in 1987, stating that such a trade violates the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.[31] It also condemns the practice on the grounds that it "is likely to take unfair advantage of the poorest and most vulnerable groups, undermines altruistic donation and leads to profiteering and human trafficking."[31] In 1991, at the 44th World Health Assembly, it approved nine guiding principles for human organ transplant. The principles clearly stated that organs cannot be the subject of financial transactions. On May 22, 2004, these guidelines were slightly amended at the 57th World Health Assembly. They are intended for the use of governments worldwide.[24] These global initiatives have served as a helpful resource for establishing medical professional codes and a legal framework for the issue, but have not provided the sanctions required for enforcement.